The use of the encrypted messaging applications Signal and Wickr by the 82nd Airborne Division’s Task Force Devil underscores the complexity of security and operations for U.S. forces deployed to war zones where adversaries can exploit American communications systems, cell phones and the electromagnetic spectrum.

But it also raises questions as to whether the Defense Department is scrambling to fill gaps in potential security vulnerabilities for American forces operating overseas by relying on encrypted messaging apps available for anyone to download in the civilian marketplace.

“All official communication on government cell phones within TF Devil has been recommended to use Signal or Wickr encrypted messaging apps,” Maj. Richard Foote, a spokesman for the 1st Brigade Combat Team, told Military Times.

“These are the two apps recommended by our leadership, as they are encrypted and free for download and use,” Foote said.

Foote added that there is no operational discussions via the apps and an extra layer of security is provided because users must go through virtual private networks.

However, there are government transparency concerns with the use of encrypted messaging apps like Signal and Wickr, which feature auto-delete functions where messages are erased after a set period of time. Electronic communications and text messages sent as part of official government business are part of the public record, and should be accessible via a Freedom of Information Act request.

DoD did not respond to queries from Military Times regarding government records keeping policies and whether Signal and Wickr have been audited for security flaws. Military Times has reached out to the National Security Agency, and has yet to receive a response.

Operational planners and military commanders rely on government cell phones for basic menial tasks from scheduling and daily muster even when deployed overseas.

Foote told Military Times that there is “no requirement for extensive use of cell phones for work communication” for the deployed 82nd paratroopers.

“If cell phones are used, we have taken the best steps, readily available, to ensure the best security of our transmissions,” Foote explained.

“To be clear, the term “official communication” in this setting refers to coordination of assets, sharing of meeting time changes, etc,” he added. “There is no operational discussion on these platforms.”

Adversaries like Iran, which boast robust cyber and electronic warfare capabilities, can glean much information from phone collections and basic text messages that could highlight daily patterns on an installation or sudden shifts and changes in schedules — potential indications of pending operations.

But Foote explained that the 82nd’s government cell communications include an extra layer of security.

“When official business is being conducted via cell, it is done on the apps over VPN-protected [virtual private network] connections…systems reviewed and recommended by our Communications and Cyber sections,” he said.

In 2016, Signal received a positive security review when it was audited by the International Association for Cryptologic Research.

“We have found no major flaws in the design,” IACR said in its 2016 security audit of Signal.

A former military intelligence operator who has extensive experience working with the special operations community told Military Times that the Signal app was “very secure,” with no known bugs.

He explained that the 82nd Airborne’s reliance on the app for government cell communications wasn’t necessarily an indication that the DoD was behind the curve on protecting cellphone security for deployed troops. The former intelligence operator said he believed the DoD was just being lazy.

“Unfortunately, those apps are more secure than texting in the clear, which is more or less the alternative,” a former U.S. defense official told Military Times. “Granted, if a hostile party has access to the handset, that encryption isn’t particularly helpful.”

The former U.S. defense official, who spoke to Military Times on condition of anonymity because he was not authorized to speak on the record, said the DoD should use commercial applications as long as they are tested and meet security requirements.

“I don’t have confidence that DoD could build a unique texting system with proper security protocols that would beat any commercial, off the shelf, version,” the former official said.

With regards to transparency and records keeping requirements, Foote said he “cannot confirm if any personnel have Signal or Wickr settings which allow auto-delete of messages at this time.”

Military Times has not been able to confirm if Signal and Wickr have been audited for security flaws and vulnerabilities by the DoD.

Officials from Signal and Wickr did not immediately respond to requests for comment.

The division’s 1st Brigade Combat Team deployed to Kuwait in early January as part of an emergency response to the region over heightened tensions with Iran.

“Families have reported instances where they have received unsolicited contact with some menacing messaging,” said Lt. Col. Mike Burns, a division spokesman.

“We have done several things to inform our paratroopers and families of these risks and ways that they can protect themselves,” Burns added. “I also personally spoke to the brigade [Familiy Readiness Group] leaders today.”

The 82nd has told family members to be vigilant and practice smart behavior online. Family members should check their social media settings and reference the U.S. Army’s social media handbook, Burns said. In addition to distributing social media pamphlets, the division has held information forums for families. Burns could not comment on the reports that WiFi access was suspended for brigade paratroopers in Kuwait.

Separately, two U.S. sources with direct knowledge of the situation told Military Times the WiFi access was suspended over fears of a potential hacking and leak of sensitive contact information. One defense source said the MWR network was compromised, that contacts were pulled from service member’s devices and family members have been getting threats and disturbing messages from hackers.

The defense official, who spoke on condition of anonymity because he was not authorized to speak on the record, said family members stateside have been getting threats and disturbing messages.

One of the messages obtained by Military Times appears to be a typical psychological operations-styled warning. It references Iran, but there is no indication it is actually a state-sponsored message.

“If you like your life and you want to see your family again, pack up your stuff right now and leave the Middle East. Go back to your country. You and your terrorist clown president brought nothing but terrorism,” the message reads. “You fools underestimate the power of Iran. The recent attack on your [expletive] bases was just a little taste of our power. By killing our general, you dug your own grave. Before having more dead bodies, just leave the region for good and never look back.”

The message was sent over Instagram by an account that used deceased Iranian Quds Force commander Qassem Soleimani’s portrait as a profile picture. Soleimani was killed by a U.S. airstrike on Jan. 3 in Baghdad, Iraq.

Other messages included fake scenarios about kidnappings intended to scare family members. A separate official noted that some messages appear to look more like phishing attempts.

The extent of the possible compromise is unknown. One defense official said it’s unknown at this time when and where the potential hacking may have taken place.

But the Department of Homeland Security has warned that “Iran maintains a robust cyber program” and “is capable, at a minimum, of carrying out attacks with temporary disruptive effects.”

U.S. Central Command and Operation Inherent Resolve have yet to respond to requests for comment.

Roughly a brigade of 82nd Airborne troops deployed to Kuwait in early January as tensions with Iran mounted over rocket attacks in Iraq by Tehran’s proxies and attempts by Iran-backed Shia militias and their supporters to storm the U.S. Embassy in Baghdad.

The brigade took various security precautions before deploying by telling the paratroopers to leave behind personal communications devices, phones and laptops.

“Anything considered a personal electronic device. All those things,” Burns previously told Army Times. “But banned is a harsh word. The decision was made so soldiers weren’t put at risk.”

The decision was intended to both ensure that sensitive information pertaining to the deployment and mission was not shared outside official channels, and also to prevent any potential cyberattacks against the soldiers.

One of those approved games was a special version of Doom that was developed to help train Marines, according to the Marine Corps history division.

Doom is a popular first-person shooter game developed by id Software in 1993. Several versions of the game have been released throughout the years, with the latest version titled Doom VFR appearing on store shelves in 2017.

Krulak encouraged Marines to play video games to help prepare for combat, and he approved the use of select games to be played on government computers.

In a Marine order published in 1997 said that the “use of technological innovations, such as personal computer (PC)-based wargames, provide great potential for Marines to develop decision making skills, particularly when live training time and opportunities are limited.”

The 1997 order, signed by Krulak, was designed to urge Marines to participate in daily military thinking and decision-making exercises.

“Commanders may now authorize the use of government computers for the games listed in the PC-based Wargames Catalog,” the order reads.

The Marine Corps Modeling and Simulation Management Office was tasked with identifying and maintaining a list of approved video games.

Marines were also authorized to write to Marine Corps Combat Development Command to seek approval for new games to be added to the list, according to the Marine order.

“Decisions made in war must frequently be made under physical and emotional duress. Our mental exercises in peacetime should replicate some of the same conditions,” the order reads.

While Marines may no longer be slaying monsters in Doom to prepare for their next deployment, the Corps is pushing heavy on virtual simulators.

One such device is a simple pair of virtual reality googles that serves as a mobile fires support trainer to help keep air tactical controllers and Joint Fires Observers fresh on their skills.

Marines and units don’t always have the time to reserve ranges, virtual reality simulators can help reduce the work burden while also being cost effective.

Another system being looked at by the Corps is the gunfighter gym. These systems are ultra realistic marksmanship simulators that can change scenarios, terrain, ­environment, or day and night.

Marine squads can be pitted against low tech enemies or thrown though the gauntlet against a technological superior enemy with night vision and thermal capabilities.

The system has a recording function so a squad can playback their performance and help them adjust or work through tactical solutions.

“Since success in combat depends in large part on our collective capability to make and execute effective military decisions under physical and emotional stress, it is imperative that all Marines make every effort to exercise and develop their decision making abilities,” the 1997 Marine order reads.

Krulak served as the 31st commandant from 1995 to 1999. He helped pushed experimental exercises and envisioned a more tech adept Marine force using computers and drones on the battlefield.

Speaking at a symposium for the Association of Old Crows — an electronic warfare nonprofit — Col. Ivan Pavlenko, deputy chief of combat support units of Joint Staff Armed Forces of Ukraine, told audience members Tuesday that Ukraine had lost nearly 100 drones to Russian electronic attacks on navigation systems through a tactic known as GPS spoofing.

Russia has also been “really effective” at finding and jamming Ukrainian counter artillery batteries, Pavlenko said. Russian forces will blind the radar systems and then shell Ukrainian forces, he explained.

He described Russian suppression of Ukraine’s trunked Motorola radio communications as “highly active.” Russian forces also managed to infect a radio repeater — a system that helps boost two-way radio communications longer distances — with a virus, according to Pavlenko.

Russian forces are also employing drones armed with direction finding technology and receivers to track down and locate Ukrainian forces on the ground.

Russia also has the ability to jam smartphones and GSM cellular networks at a depth of 20 miles, Pavlenko detailed. Once in the smartphone, Russia can steal information or locate a position, he explained.

Ukrainian forces are now awash with experience fighting through and exploiting the electromagnetic spectrum. While the U.S. has provided training and equipment to Ukraine, its forces have largely watched the battle from the sidelines taking notes in preparation for a larger conflict.

For the past two decades, American troops have been embroiled in low-tech counterinsurgency conflicts where the electromagnetic spectrum has been dominated by the U.S.

Seamless communications and access to GPS navigation have been the norm for American troops, but the Ukraine battlefield is a testament that American forces can no longer maintain preconceived notions that their forces will control and operate smoothly in the future.

Used to operating from large built-up bases, U.S. forces will now need to learn how to mask and hide both their visible and electromagnetic signature.

U.S. troops need “better “hiding” mechanisms — scrambling, spoofing and otherwise masking their signals and electronic signatures,” said Samuel Bendett, an adviser at the Center for Naval Analyses and a fellow in Russia studies at the American Foreign Policy Council.

American troops in Syria have already been honing this skill in where some near-peer states continue to vie for control of strategic resources and influence in the Middle East.

“You’re getting exposure to threats from adversaries to potential adversaries around the region that you can’t replicate back in the United States,” Marine Col. George Schreffler III, the former commander of Special Purpose Marine Air-Ground Task Force – Crisis Response – Central Command, previously told Marine Corps Times. “And that’s making us more ready.”

Surveillance drones armed with electronic war capabilities from Russia, Iran and Turkey are flying the skies over Syria scoping enemy positions and collecting valuable intelligence.

“We have to continue to train to minimize our signatures, both from an electromagnetic perspective, and from the physical, visual and audible observation perspective,” Schreffler explained.

“Camouflage and cover and concealment matter, and when any adversary is looking at you with their own small unmanned aerial systems, or their aircraft … your Marines have to be good at skills Marines always have to be good at,” he said.

Drones have been vital to both Ukrainian and Russian forces battling over the electromagnetic spectrum.

Bendett says America needs to take stock in this experience and ensure its fleet of drones are hardened against GPS spoofing and electronic attack.

“In fact, Ukrainian drone industry recently announced that some of its UAVs built for the military have better EW protection than previous models,” Bendett said. “For their part, Russian military is also building drones that can operate in an EMS-challenged environment.”

Pavlenko told audience members Tuesday that U.S. sanctions have taken a toll and degraded some of Russia’s electronic warfare capabilities.

“Not sure what is meant by “degraded” – If anything Russians learned a lot from Ukrainian experience and their electronic warfare is stronger. I think this is Ukrainians trying to counter Russian narrative. I don’t think Russian capabilities were degraded there,” Bendett told Military Times.

But experts question whether the additional 3,000 American troops, Air Force F-15s and Patriot missile batteries will be enough to counter the growing capability of Iranian and Yemen-based Houthi drones and missiles in the region.

Since the 2015 outbreak of violence in Yemen, Iran-backed Houthi rebels have launched more than 250 missiles across the border, according to a U.S. State Department brief obtained by Military Times. Those attacks killed at least 206 civilians and wounded nearly 950. Roughly 20,000 people have been displaced.

The brief also noted there was an increase in “drone incursions” near the Yemen border in August.

Iran and Houthi rebels both field an impressive collection of drones and cruise missiles capable of reaching U.S. allies in the Gulf.

It’s unknown how many drones and missiles have been shot down by coalition and U.S. Patriot systems in Saudi Arabia. U.S. Central Command did not respond to a request for the Patriot’s success rate in engaging airborne targets.

But the overreliance on the air defense Patriot system has come under criticism by analysts who argue that the low flying cruise missiles and drones possessed by Iran and its Houthi allies are difficult to counter.

“There’s no question that the Patriot can hit a cruise missile,” Peter Brookes, a retired Navy intelligence officer and former deputy assistant secretary of defense for Asian and Pacific affairs, told Military Times. But the “real challenge” for the region is the need for a better integrated air defense, strategic warning and detection, he said.

Brookes is now a senior research fellow for the Heritage Foundation, a Washington, D.C.-based think tank.

According to the State Department brief, on Sept. 14 at least 18 unmanned aerial vehicles hit the Saudi Abqaiq oil field, and seven land-attack cruise missiles targeted the Khurais oil field — three of those missiles fell short of the target. The two oil fields process nearly 8.6 million barrels of oil a day.

The brief didn’t detail specifically what type of cruise missile or drones impacted the Saudi oil facilities, but it included two photos of the Iranian land-attack cruise missile, known as the Soumar, and the Quds-1 missile.

Houthi rebels claimed responsibility for the attack, but Secretary of State Mike Pompeo and President Donald Trump both fingered Iran for the attack on Saudi’s oil infrastructure.

While the Quds-1 has been seen with the Houthis, the Associated Press reported that its limited range would have made it impossible for a missile fired from Yemen to hit the target.

But the Houthis do possess a range of drones and missiles capable of hitting the Saudi capital of Riyadh, as well as Dubai and Abu Dhabi in the United Arab Emirates. And Iran has been developing an array of drones and cruise missiles.

The Soumar is an Iranian ground-launched cruise missile that has been in service since 2012, and boasts a range of 2,000 km to 3,000 km, according to the Center for Strategic and International Studies’ missile threat project.

The benefits of these cruise missile systems, according to Brookes, is that “they’re able to fly low, they’re able to fly evasively” making them difficult to target. The Patriot can target these threats, but the region needs a mix of systems that includes lasers, F-35s, ground-based radar and potentially Israel’s Iron Dome system, Brookes said.

The Marine Corps and Army have expressed interest in acquiring the Iron Dome.

The State Department brief also detailed that there was an increase in the number of reported border clashes in August, with Houthis crossing into Saudi Arabia.

A reported claim that Houthis routed three Saudi brigades and killed 500 troops near southern Najran, Saudi Arabia, at the end of September was listed as unconfirmed in the brief.

Houthi rebels uploaded video and images of destroyed Saudi armored vehicles and hundreds of alleged captured Saudi troops.

On Sept. 11, the Corps put out a request for information from industry leaders for an unmanned vessel capable of traveling 500 nautical miles without resupply.

The information request “is simply conducting market research to explore unmanned inter-theater amphibious solutions capable of supporting littoral operations in a contested environment,” Maj. Ken Kunze, a Marine spokesman told Marine Corps Times.

The Corps provided no other details about its request for information related to the long range unmanned vessel.

But, the Corps has been expressing a lot of interest as of late regarding unmanned surface vessels.

In July the Corps tested an unmanned boat built by Textron Systems known as the Common Unmanned Surface Vehicle at the Advanced Naval Technology Exercise held aboard Camp Lejeune, North Carolina, according to Wayne Prender, the senior vice president for applied technology and advanced programs for Textron.

Textron’s unmanned vessel has a range of 10 nautical miles to 20 nautical miles and a 24-hour endurance depending on the payload, Prender told Marine Corps Times at the 2019 Modern Day Marine expo in Quantico, Virginia.

Prender believes Textron’s unmanned ship is “well suited” for the Corps’ long-range unmanned surface vessel program.

During the experimental exercise at Camp Lejeune, Prender said that the Textron vessel conducted a high value vessel protection.

The ship’s mission, Prender said, “was to keep itself between a high valued asset and potential enemy or threat.”

The system’s sensors were able to identify threats and position the ship between itself and the asset and protect it, Prender explained.

The unmanned boat is also an open system, Prender said. That means you can put whatever weapon systems “you can dream on it.”

On Sept. 6 the Corps awarded a contract valued at $249 million to Harris Corp., based out of Roanoke, Virginia, for the purchase of squad binocular night vision Goggle systems, according to a news release.

The Corps expects delivery of 14,000 devices, with the first sets to be doled out to grunts, according to the release.

“Awarding this SBNVG contract and fielding these systems to the warfighter is one more step toward increasing the command and control, lethality and ability of the infantry squad to overwhelm our adversaries,” Lt. Col. Tim Hough, the program manager for infantry weapons at Marine Corps Systems Command, said in a release.

The new night vision device is a combination of binocular goggles and a clip-on thermal imager, which will improve depth perception and the ability to see in extreme low light and inclement weather, the release detailed.

“Additionally, the use of white phosphor provides a greater capability to see at night with more clarity, giving Marines enhanced situational awareness,” Hugh said in the release.

The Marine Corps posted its for proposal for the new night vision devices in the fall of 2018.

Prior to the awarding of the contract, the Corps used a Defense Logistics Agency contract to procure 1,300 systems, according to a release.

“We made the investment to procure the 1,300 systems and fielded them to two infantry battalion, so we already had a good, robust understanding of the technology we were chasing,” Roberto Gonzalez, team lead for combat optics at Marine Corps Systems Command, said in a release.

Grunts with 2nd Battalion, 8th Marines, embarked with the 26th Marine Expeditionary Unit will be fielding the new night vision devices.

The infantry Marines with the 26th MEU are currently operating 15-Marine sized squads, and will be the first Marine unit to deploy and test the new squad configuration.

The Corps said it expects the contract and delivery of the new night vision devices to be complete by September 2024, according to a release.

For nearly two weeks aboard Camp Pendleton, California, the Corps and Naval Surface Warfare Center put a remotely operated AAV through two weeks of testing, according to a release.

The remotely operated AAV successfully carried out 22 surf zone crossings and 13 open water transits, according to a release.

“Assault Amphibious Vehicles were structured to carry troops in water operations from ship-to-shore, through rough water and the surf zone,” Dustin Bride, the remote AAV system engineer at the Naval Surface Warfare Center, said in the release.

“This modernized upgrade will allow the Marine Corps to remotely traverse from ship-to-shore with an organic vehicle capability to breach and proof lanes and landing zones for landing forces,” Bride said in the release.

A mission of the remotely operated AAV is to use the MK 154 mine clearance system that can help in clearing beachheads. The unmanned AAV is being upgraded to remotely operate this feature, a release said.

The new unmanned AAV potentially brings a new mission to the legacy amphibious vehicle, despite the Marine Corps killing the survivability upgrades for the system in Aug. 2018.

At that time, the Marine Corps said it was shuttering the upgrades to better align with the National Defense Strategy focused on near-peer competitors.

The aging vehicle does not “meet the needs of modern Marine amphibious forcible entry operations,” Manny Pacheco, a Marine spokesman, previously told Defense News and Marine Corps Times.

“Rather than continue to invest in that vehicle that, even in upgraded form, will not provide adequate maneuverability, survivability, or ship-to-shore performance, the Marine Corps believes these funds would be better used elsewhere to support modernization initiatives across the force, Pacheco said.

But a remotely operated AAV may serve another purpose.

Commandant of the Marine Corps Gen. David Berger alluded to a new fighting concept, dubbed stand-in forces, in his recent planning guidance, which articulated a vision for using cost effective unmanned and minimally manned systems.

“Stand-in Forces are designed to generate technically disruptive, tactical stand-in engagements that confront aggressor naval forces with an array of low signature, affordable, and risk-worthy platforms and payloads,” Berger wrote in his guidance message.

These “risk-worthy unmanned and minimally-manned platforms” can be used to create “tactical dilemmas” for enemy forces, Berger wrote.

“Because they are inherently resilient, risk worthy, inexpensive and lethal they restore combat credibility to forward deployed naval forces and serve to deter aggression,” Berger said in the guidance message.

Berger noted that the new stand-in forces concept would be published and released in the coming months.

The Marine Corps is replacing the AAV with the BAE’s amphibious combat vehicle.

While aerial drones have captured much of the spotlight over the years, the Corps has also been experimenting and testing a number of surface and subsurface autonomous ships.

In July, the Corps tested the Expeditionary Warfare Unmanned Surface Vessel during an experimental exercise known as the Advanced Naval Technology Exercise held aboard Camp Lejeune, North Carolina, according to a command release.

And in 2016, the Office of Naval Research conducted a swarming experiment with unmanned rigid-hull inflatable boats, according to a release. The naval research group used four boats in the swarming experiment as the vessels tracked and trailed a target.

Lt. Gen. Eric Smith, the commander of Marine Corps Combat Development Command, said the Corps was looking at all autonomous platforms from aerial to surface and subsurface systems, according to National Defense Magazine.

“We’re testing 11-meter rigid-hull inflatable boats,” Smith said, according to National Defense Magazine.

“The technology is actually fairly simple. You can put it on really any platform. But what we’re looking for is a long-range vessel that has the ability to do resupply, move personnel or … move cargo,” Smith said, National Defense Magazine reported.

Smiths remarks were made Tuesday at the Association for Unmanned Vehicle Systems International conference held in Washington, D.C.

Smith said the Corps has also partnered with MITRE Corp. in its pursuit of unmanned surface vessels, National Defense Magazine reported.

MITRE Corp. is a nonprofit aimed at helping solve complex problems through research and development in the fields of artificial intelligence, defense and cyber, among other specialties.

Commandant of the Marine Corps Gen. David Berger called on the Corps to “aggressively research, innovate, and adapt to maximize the potential” of unmanned systems in his planning guidance published in July.

“Autonomous systems and artificial intelligence are rapidly changing the character of war,” Berger said in his planning guidance. “Our potential peer adversaries are investing heavily to gain dominance in these fields.”

Berger noted in his planning guidance that the Corps will “prioritize short-term fielding of proven technology” for unmanned systems.

The Marine Corps is ordering 4,519 headsets produced by INVISIO to the tune of $4,800,340.89, according to Manny Pacheco, a spokesman with Marine Corps Systems Command.

INVISIO is expected to deliver those headsets between this November and March 2020, with the first order going to artillery and recon Marines, according to Pacheco.

Pacheco explained that infantry Marines will be fielded new headsets on another contract.

Marines will be getting two versions of INVISIO’s T5 headset, according to Ray Clarke, a spokesman for INVISIO.

One headset will be a stand-alone to provide hearing protection, while the other will interface with Marine Corps radio systems allowing for hearing protection and communications, Clarke said.

INVISIO said in a press release that the headsets being delivered to the Corps would be compatible with the enhanced combat helmet.

“Infantry, artillery, reconnaissance and combat engineer Marines decided on INVISIO systems based on fit, form, function and comfort,” the release said.

Marines will also be getting the V50 controller that will serve as a communications hub and allow Marines to better operate their radio systems.

The Marine Corps announced in September that it was ready to order thousands of new headsets and was looking at a range of systems.

As part of that effort, the Corps also kicked off testing of various mid to high cut versions of the enhanced combat helmet to gauge the best ballistic and hearing protection fit.

For that testing, the Corps ordered nearly 200 ECH helmets from Gentex Corp., the maker of the iconic Ops-Core helmets worn by special operators.

The Corps also announced in June that it was also pursuing a new lightweight integrated helmet system for grunts that can better work with the slew of cables and electronic devices carried by infantry Marines.

“With the increased number of battery powered optics and other attachments to the helmet, the amount of exposed/unsecure wires and battery packs are increasing,” a June posting on the government’s business opportunities website reads.

“The Marine Corps is looking for an optimized configuration to allow power and/or data to flow to the attachments while minimizing bulk,” the posting reads.

Clarke said INVISIO also provides Marine Raiders with the Maritime Communications Accessory Suite that comes with the V60 controller and X5 in-the ear headset.